6G 시장(2027-2047년)

Sixth-generation mobile communications is on course for commercial launch around 2030, with specifications expected to be frozen in 2028 and the first interoperable systems appearing the following year. The build-out that follows will be the longest and most capital-intensive in the industry's history, and unusually for a new generation, its commercial shape is already being contested before any deployable equipment exists.

Three characteristics separate 6G from its predecessors. It is AI-native rather than AI-assisted, with learned models embedded at the physical layer itself; the industry is currently divided over whether that yields a modest efficiency improvement or a genuine doubling of the capacity available from existing spectrum. It adds integrated sensing and communication, so that the same radio hardware carrying traffic also images and positions its environment, giving operators a capability to sell that has no equivalent in earlier generations. And it introduces reconfigurable intelligent surfaces, shifting coverage economics away from cell densification toward engineered propagation environments.

The structure of the opportunity shifts accordingly. Services overtake infrastructure as the dominant revenue pool, as operators outsource network operations and distributed inference becomes a standing feature of network traffic rather than an emerging one. Component and materials value concentrates in the categories tied to physical-layer difficulty rather than to volume: radio frequency front ends, sub-terahertz semiconductors, thermal management and reconfigurable surfaces. Device volume is dominated by consumer and industrial IoT, while smartphones and their successor form factors continue to carry a disproportionate share of device value.

Two forces now shape the outlook more than technology does. The first is industrial policy. An allied 6G partnership was launched in July 2026, US federal spectrum policy is clearing the 7.125-7.4 GHz band for commercial use, and coordinated positions in standards bodies raise the prospect of two partially divergent technology stacks. The second is capital discipline. The 5G experience left operators with returns well below expectation, and the industry's response is to reposition the base station as a monetisable compute asset rather than as a radio transmission point alone.

The principal risks are asymmetric. Spectral efficiency gains of the magnitude some vendors now claim would reduce the number of physical sites required, compressing infrastructure volumes even as software and services revenues rise. Standards fragmentation along geopolitical lines would erode the manufacturing scale on which the entire cost trajectory depends. Neither risk is currently resolvable from published evidence, and both should be treated as live.

The Global 6G Market 2027-2047 is a comprehensive technical and commercial analysis of sixth-generation mobile communications, covering the full value chain from semiconductor materials and advanced packaging through radio systems, base stations and non-terrestrial networks to devices, applications and services. The report provides granular twenty-one-year forecasts segmented by infrastructure, devices, components and materials, and services, with additional breakdowns by application vertical, device category, component category, region and base station type, and dedicated forecasts for reconfigurable intelligent surfaces and thermal management materials.

Analysis extends well beyond conventional market sizing. The report examines the AI-RAN architecture dispute now dividing the principal infrastructure vendors, including the merchant-GPU versus custom-silicon question and its consequences for base station bills of material; the emergence of integrated sensing and communication as a specified capability across ETSI, 3GPP and ITU-R; and the geopolitical restructuring of the supply chain following the formation of an allied 6G partnership.

Technology coverage includes sub-terahertz radio systems, compound semiconductors, phased array antennas, advanced packaging, MIMO evolution, and zero-energy devices and battery elimination. The materials chapters address low-loss dielectrics, metamaterials and metasurfaces, thermal management and solid-state cooling, energy harvesting and self-powering, and the full family of reconfigurable intelligent surface architectures including beyond-diagonal, simultaneously transmitting and reflecting, stacked and flexible intelligent metasurfaces, together with manufacturing processes, testing methods and cost structure. A dedicated section covers optical wireless communications, free-space optics, optical RIS and metalenses, photonics-defined radio and terahertz waveguides.

The report profiles sixty-six companies across infrastructure, semiconductors, materials, metasurfaces, photonics, test and measurement, and network operations, and includes development roadmaps by country, spectrum allocation and regulatory analysis, standardisation status across 3GPP, ITU-R and ETSI, and a full statement of research methodology and sources.

The study is intended for equipment vendors, semiconductor and materials suppliers, network operators, investors and policymakers requiring a defensible view of where value accrues across the 6G build-out.

Contents include:

• Executive Summary - the 6G market in 2025-2026; market drivers, trends and constraints; key conclusions; global market revenues to 2047 by infrastructure, devices, components and services; base station, RIS, thermal management, application, device, component and service forecasts; regional analysis; forecast extension to 2047
• Introduction - what 6G is; differentiators from 5G; use cases and requirements; rollout timeline; technology interdependencies; global trends including standards bifurcation risk and ISAC convergence
• 6G Radio Systems - spectrum bands and allocation; sub-terahertz propagation; waveforms and modulation; transceiver architectures; ADC/DAC constraints; RF front-end design
• Base Stations and Non-Terrestrial Networks - architecture evolution; AI and machine learning integration and the AI-RAN silicon divergence; baseband processing and merchant versus custom silicon; O-RAN fronthaul splits; satellite, HAPS and UAV integration; thermal management imperatives
• Semiconductors for 6G - CMOS, SiGe, GaN, GaAs and InP; device scaling; power amplifiers; frequency limits by technology
• Phased Array Antennas for 6G - array architectures; beamforming approaches; antenna-in-package; scaling to 1024TRX
• Advanced Packaging for 6G - substrates, interconnect, integration approaches and thermal co-design
• Materials and Technologies for 6G - low-loss dielectrics; self-healing, self-cleaning and long-life materials; metamaterials and metasurfaces; RIS operating principles, performance and economics; beyond-diagonal RIS; STAR-RIS; stacked and flexible intelligent metasurfaces; RIS manufacturing, testing and cost structure; fibre optics; optical wireless communications, VLC and LiFi; free-space optics; optical RIS and metalenses; optical signal processing and photonics-defined radio; terahertz waveguides; thermal management; passive daytime radiative cooling; self-adaptive and switchable cooling; Janus emitters and anti-Stokes fluorescence; solid-state cooling including thermoelectric, electrocaloric, magnetocaloric and mechanocaloric approaches; smart EM devices
• MIMO for 6G - evolution across generations; distributed and cell-free MIMO; holographic MIMO; ultra-massive arrays
• Zero Energy Devices and Battery Elimination - ambient backscatter; SWIPT; energy harvesting technologies; self-powering infrastructure
• 6G Development Roadmaps - national programmes; US federal spectrum policy; regulatory status; global government initiatives and the allied 6G partnership; operator and vendor roadmaps
• Company Profiles - 66 profiles including 2Pi Optics, AALTO HAPS, AGC Japan, Alcan Systems, Alibaba China, Alphacore, Ampleon, Anywaves, Apple, Atheraxon, Commscope, Echodyne, Edgehog Advanced Technologies, Ericsson, Fractal Antenna Systems, Freshwave, Fujitsu, Greenerwave, Huawei, HyMet Thermal Interfaces, InterDigital, Kuang-Chi Technologies, Kymeta, Kyocera, LATYS Intelligence, LG Electronics, Lumotive, META, Metaboards, Metalenz, Metamagnetics, Metawave Corporation and more....

Table of Contents

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

• 1.1 From 1G to 6G
• 1.2 The AI-Native 6G Revolution
• 1.3 Evolution from 5G Networks
  • 1.3.1 Limitations with 5G
  • 1.3.2 Benefits of 6G
  • 1.3.3 Advanced materials in 6G
  • 1.3.4 Recent hardware developments
• 1.4 The 6G Market in
  • 1.4.1 Regional Market Activity
  • 1.4.2 Investment Landscape
  • 1.4.3 Market Constraints in
• 1.5 Market outlook for 6G
  • 1.5.1 Growth of Mobile Traffic
    • 1.5.1.1 Optimistic Scenario
    • 1.5.1.2 Conservative Scenario
    • 1.5.1.3 Regional Divergence
    • 1.5.1.4 Implications for 6G
  • 1.5.2 Proliferation in Consumer Technology
    • 1.5.2.1 Smartphone Evolution
    • 1.5.2.2 Beyond Smartphones
  • 1.5.3 Industrial and Enterprise Transformation
  • 1.5.4 Economic Competitiveness
  • 1.5.5 Sustainability
    • 1.5.5.1 Energy Efficiency Imperative
• 1.6 Market drivers and trends
• 1.7 Market challenges and bottlenecks
  • 1.7.1 Critical Bottlenecks
• 1.8 Key Conclusions for 6G Communications Systems and Hardware
• 1.9 Roadmap
  • 1.9.1 Critical Path Analysis
• 1.10 Global Market Revenues to
  • 1.10.1 6G Infrastructure Market by Deployment Location
  • 1.10.2 6G Infrastructure Market by Region
  • 1.10.3 6G Base Station Market
  • 1.10.4 Reconfigurable Intelligent Surfaces (RIS) Market
  • 1.10.5 6G Thermal Management Market
  • 1.10.6 6G Application Markets
  • 1.10.7 6G Device Market Forecast by Category
  • 1.10.8 6G Components & Materials Market
  • 1.10.9 6G Services Market
  • 1.10.10 Forecast Extension to
• 1.11 Applications
  • 1.11.1 Connected Autonomous Vehicle Systems
  • 1.11.2 Next Generation Industrial Automation
  • 1.11.3 Healthcare Solutions
  • 1.11.4 Immersive Extended Reality Experiences
• 1.12 Geographical Markets for 6G
  • 1.12.1 North America
  • 1.12.2 Asia Pacific
    • 1.12.2.1 China
    • 1.12.2.2 Japan
    • 1.12.2.3 South Korea
    • 1.12.2.4 India
  • 1.12.3 Europe
• 1.13 Main Market Players
• 1.14 6G Projects by Country
• 1.15 Sustainability in 6G

2 INTRODUCTION

• 2.1 What is 6G?
• 2.2 Evolving Mobile Communications
• 2.3 5G deployment
  • 2.3.1 Motivation for 6G
  • 2.3.2 Growth in Mobile Data Traffic
    • 2.3.2.1 Growth of Mobile Traffic Slows
  • 2.3.3 Future of Traffic
    • 2.3.3.1 Continued Exponential Growth (Optimist View)
    • 2.3.3.2 Structural Deceleration (Realist View)
    • 2.3.3.3 Plateau and Decline (Pessimist View)
  • 2.3.4 Traffic Growth Plateau in China
  • 2.3.5 Video Streaming
• 2.4 Multi-Dimensional Value Proposition
• 2.5 Potential 6G High-Value Applications
  • 2.5.1 Holographic Communication
  • 2.5.2 Persistent AR Overlays
  • 2.5.3 Cooperative Perception for Autonomous Systems
  • 2.5.4 Real-Time Digital Twins
• 2.6 Applications and Required Bandwidths
• 2.7 Artificial Intelligence's impact on network traffic
  • 2.7.1 AI Workload: On-Device vs Cloud
• 2.8 Autonomous vehicles
  • 2.8.1 Autonomous Vehicle Communications
  • 2.8.2 Cooperative Perception
  • 2.8.3 Vehicle platooning
• 2.9 6G Rollout Timeline
  • 2.9.1 Regional Deployment Timeline
• 2.10 6G Spectrum
  • 2.10.1 6G Candidate Spectrum Bands
  • 2.10.2 Bands vs Bandwidth
  • 2.10.3 Bandwidth-Coverage Tradeoff
  • 2.10.4 6G Spectrum and Deployment
    • 2.10.4.1 Economic Deployment Model
      • 2.10.4.1.1 Phase 1: Evolutionary 6G (2029-2034)
      • 2.10.4.1.2 Phase 2: Revolutionary 6G (2034-2040+)
• 2.11 Frequencies Beyond 100GHz
  • 2.11.1 Atmospheric Absorption Windows
  • 2.11.2 Sub-THz Application Viability
  • 2.11.3 6G Applications
• 2.12 Technology Interdependencies
• 2.13 Global Trends
• 3.1 Technical Targets for High Data-Rate 6G Radios
• 3.2 6G Transceiver Architecture
• 3.3 Technical Elements in 6G Radio Systems
• 3.4 Bandwidth and Modulation
• 3.5 Bandwidth Requirements for Supporting 100 Gbps - 1 Tbps Radios
  • 3.5.1 Practical Bandwidth Allocation
• 3.6 Bandwidth and MIMO
• 3.7 6G Radio Performance
• 3.8 Beyond 100 Gbps
• 3.9 Radio Link Range vs System Gain
• 3.10 Hardware Gap
• 3.11 Saturated Output Power vs Frequency
• 3.12 Power consumption
  • 3.12.1 Power Consumption of PA Scale with Frequency
  • 3.12.2 Power Consumption on the Transceiver Side (1, 2, 3)
    • 3.12.2.1 Receive Chain Power Analysis

4 BASE STATIONS AND NON-TERRESTRIAL NETWORKS

• 4.1 UM-MIMO and Vanishing Base Stations
  • 4.1.1 Sequence
  • 4.1.2 RIS-Enabled, Self-Powered 6G UM-MIMO Base Station Design
    • 4.1.2.1 System Architecture
    • 4.1.2.2 Power Management
    • 4.1.2.3 Performance Characteristics
  • 4.1.3 Base Station Power and Cooling
    • 4.1.3.1 Power Consumption Drivers
    • 4.1.3.2 Economic and Environmental Impact
    • 4.1.3.3 Solutions and Mitigation Strategies
  • 4.1.4 Semiconductor Technologies for 6G Base Stations
    • 4.1.4.1 Power Amplifiers
    • 4.1.4.2 Transceivers and Beamformers
    • 4.1.4.3 Baseband Processing
    • 4.1.4.4 RIS Control
  • 4.1.5 Base Station and MIMO Technology Advances
    • 4.1.5.1 Integrated Active Antenna Systems
    • 4.1.5.2 Open RAN Architecture
    • 4.1.5.3 AI and Machine Learning Integration
    • 4.1.5.4 Network Slicing
    • 4.1.5.5 Edge Computing Integration
• 4.2 Satellites and Drones
  • 4.2.1 How Satellites Benefit from 6G
  • 4.2.2 How 6G Benefits from Satellites
  • 4.2.3 Drone Integration Benefits
• 4.3 Internet of Drones
  • 4.3.1 Network Architecture
  • 4.3.2 Technical Challenges
  • 4.3.3 Market Outlook
• 4.4 High Altitude Platform Stations (HAPS)
  • 4.4.1 HAPS Platforms
  • 4.4.2 Communications Payload
  • 4.4.3 Advantages
  • 4.4.4 Challenges
  • 4.4.5 Status and Timeline
• 4.5 6G Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTN)
  • 4.5.1 Connectivity Gap
    • 4.5.1.1 Dimensions of the Gap
    • 4.5.1.2 Quantification
    • 4.5.1.3 Regional Characteristics
  • 4.5.2 Development of LEO NTNs
    • 4.5.2.1 Major Constellations
    • 4.5.2.2 Technology Evolution
  • 4.5.3 NTN Technologies
    • 4.5.3.1 Geostationary Orbit (GEO) Satellites
    • 4.5.3.2 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) Satellites
    • 4.5.3.3 Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites
    • 4.5.3.4 Very Low Earth Orbit (VLEO)
  • 4.5.4 HAPS vs LEO vs GEO
    • 4.5.4.1 Deployment Speed and Flexibility
    • 4.5.4.2 Operational Complexity
    • 4.5.4.3 Coverage Characteristics
    • 4.5.4.4 Economic Models
  • 4.5.5 Direct to Cell (D2C)
    • 4.5.5.1 Technical Challenge
    • 4.5.5.2 Satellite Solutions
    • 4.5.5.3 Performance Expectations
    • 4.5.5.4 Market Positioning
  • 4.5.6 NTNs for D2C
    • 4.5.6.1 Link Budget Components
    • 4.5.6.2 HAPS Analysis
    • 4.5.6.3 LEO Analysis
    • 4.5.6.4 MEO and GEO Analysis
  • 4.5.7 Technologies for Non-Terrestrial Networks
    • 4.5.7.1 Satellite Bus and Platform Technologies
    • 4.5.7.2 Phased Array Antennas
    • 4.5.7.3 Satellite Payload Processing
    • 4.5.7.4 Inter-Satellite Optical Links
    • 4.5.7.5 Ground Segment Infrastructure

5 SEMICONDUCTORS FOR 6G

• 5.1 Introduction
• 5.2 RF Transistors Performance
• 5.3 Si-based Semiconductors
  • 5.3.1 CMOS
    • 5.3.1.1 Bulk vs SOI
    • 5.3.1.2 SiGe
• 5.4 GaAs and GaN
  • 5.4.1 GaN's Opportunity in 6G
  • 5.4.2 GaN-on-Si, SiC or Diamond for RF
  • 5.4.3 GaAs Positioning in 6G
  • 5.4.4 State-of-the-Art GaAs Based Amplifier
  • 5.4.5 GaAs vs GaN for RF Power Amplifiers
  • 5.4.6 Power Amplifier Technology Benchmarking
• 5.5 InP (Indium Phosphide)
  • 5.5.1 InP HEMT vs InP HBT
    • 5.5.1.1 InP Opportunities for 6G
  • 5.5.2 Heterogeneous Integration of InP with SiGe BiCMOS
• 5.6 Semiconductor Challenges for THz Communications
  • 5.6.1 Mitigation Strategies
• 5.7 Semiconductor Supply Chain

6 PHASE ARRAY ANTENNAS FOR 6G

• 6.1 Key 6G Antenna Requirements
• 6.2 Challenges in mmWave Phased Array Systems
  • 6.2.1 Primary Challenges
• 6.3 Antenna Architectures
• 6.4 Challenges in 6G Antennas
• 6.5 Power and Antenna Array Size
• 6.6 5G Phased Array Antenna
• 6.7 Antenna Manufacturers
• 6.8 Technology Benchmarking
• 6.9 GHz Phased Array
• 6.10 Antenna Types
• 6.11 Phased Array Modules
  • 6.11.1 Technology Readiness Assessment

7 ADVANCED PACKAGING FOR 6G

• 7.1 Evolution Drivers
• 7.2 Packaging Requirements
  • 7.2.1 Electrical Performance Demands
  • 7.2.2 Thermal Management Imperatives
• 7.3 Antenna Packaging Technology Options
  • 7.3.1 Technology Selection Criteria
• 7.4 mmWave Antenna Integration
  • 7.4.1 Antenna-on-Board (AoB)
  • 7.4.2 Antenna-in-Package (AiP)
  • 7.4.3 Antenna-on-Chip (AoC)
  • 7.4.4 Performance Analysis
• 7.5 Next Generation Phased Array Targets
  • 7.5.1 System-Level Requirements Translation
  • 7.5.2 Technology Roadmap Implications
• 7.6 Antenna Packaging vs Operational Frequency
  • 7.6.1 Frequency-Dependent Loss Mechanisms
• 7.7 Integration Technologies
  • 7.7.1 Performance vs Cost
  • 7.7.2 Flexibility vs Optimization
• 7.8 Approaches to Integrate InP on CMOS
  • 7.8.1 Integration Challenge
  • 7.8.2 Die-to-Die Hybrid Assembly
  • 7.8.3 Wafer-Level Bonding
  • 7.8.4 Epitaxial Transfer
• 7.9 Antenna Integration Challenges
  • 7.9.1 Dimensional Tolerance Requirements
  • 7.9.2 Thermal Management Scaling
  • 7.9.3 Manufacturing Yield Economics
• 7.10 Substrate Materials for AiP
• 7.11 Antenna on Chip (AoC) for 6G
• 7.12 Evolution of Hardware Components from 5G to 6G

8 MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR 6G

• 8.1 Material Challenge Domains
  • 8.1.1 Material Property Interdependencies
• 8.2 6G ZED Compounds and Carbon Allotropes
• 8.3 Thermal Cooling and Conductor Materials
• 8.4 Thermal Metamaterials for 6G
• 8.5 Ionogels for 6G
• 8.6 Advanced Heat Shielding and Thermal Insulation
• 8.7 Low-Loss Dielectrics
• 8.8 Self-Healing, Self-Cleaning and Long-Life Materials
• 8.9 Optical and Sub-THz 6G Materials
• 8.10 Materials for Metamaterial-Based 6G RIS
• 8.11 Electrically-Functionalized Transparent Glass for 6G OTA, T-RIS
  • 8.11.1 Transparent Conductive Oxides (TCO)
  • 8.11.2 Metal Meshes
  • 8.11.3 Printed Silver Nanowires
  • 8.11.4 Graphene
• 8.12 Low-Loss Materials for mmWave and THz
• 8.13 Inorganic Compounds
  • 8.13.1 Overview
  • 8.13.2 Materials
• 8.14 Elements
  • 8.14.1 Overview
  • 8.14.2 Materials
• 8.15 Organic Compounds
  • 8.15.1 Overview
  • 8.15.2 Materials
• 8.16 6G Dielectrics
  • 8.16.1 Overview
  • 8.16.2 Companies
  • 8.16.3 SWOT Analysis
• 8.17 Metamaterials
  • 8.17.1 Overview
  • 8.17.2 Metamaterials for RIS in Telecommunication
    • 8.17.2.1 RIS Operating Principles
  • 8.17.3 RIS Performance and Economics
    • 8.17.3.1 Passive Beamforming
    • 8.17.3.2 Hybrid Beamforming with RIS
    • 8.17.3.3 Adaptive Beamforming Techniques
  • 8.17.4 Beyond-Diagonal RIS Architectures
  • 8.17.5 Simultaneously Transmitting and Reflecting RIS (STAR-RIS)
  • 8.17.6 Stacked Intelligent Metasurfaces and Wave-Domain Signal Processing
  • 8.17.7 Flexible and Morphing Intelligent Metasurfaces
  • 8.17.8 RIS Manufacturing, Testing and Cost Structure
  • 8.17.9 Applications
    • 8.17.9.1 Reconfigurable Antennas
    • 8.17.9.2 Wireless Sensing
    • 8.17.9.3 Wi-Fi/Bluetooth
    • 8.17.9.4 5G and 6G Metasurfaces for Wireless Communications
      • 8.17.9.4.1 5G Applications
      • 8.17.9.4.2 6G Evolution
    • 8.17.9.5 Hypersurfaces
    • 8.17.9.6 Active Material Patterning
    • 8.17.9.7 Optical ENZ Metamaterials
    • 8.17.9.8 Liquid Crystal Polymers
      • 8.17.9.8.1 LCP Applications in 6G
• 8.18 Thermal Management
  • 8.18.1 Overview
  • 8.18.2 Thermal Materials and Structures for 6G
    • 8.18.2.1 Advanced Ceramics
    • 8.18.2.2 Diamond-based Materials
    • 8.18.2.3 Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes
    • 8.18.2.4 Phase Change Materials (PCMs)
    • 8.18.2.5 Advanced Polymers
    • 8.18.2.6 Metal Matrix Composites
    • 8.18.2.7 Two-Dimensional Materials
    • 8.18.2.8 Nanofluid Coolants
    • 8.18.2.9 Thermal Metamaterials
    • 8.18.2.10 Hydrogels
    • 8.18.2.11 Aerogels
    • 8.18.2.12 Pyrolytic Graphite
    • 8.18.2.13 Thermoelectrics
      • 8.18.2.13.1 Cooling Applications
      • 8.18.2.13.2 Energy Harvesting
  • 8.18.3 Passive Daytime Radiative Cooling
  • 8.18.4 Self-Adaptive and Switchable Radiative Cooling
  • 8.18.5 Janus Emitters and Anti-Stokes Fluorescence Cooling
• 8.19 Graphene and 2D Materials
  • 8.19.1 Overview
  • 8.19.2 Applications
    • 8.19.2.1 Supercapacitors, LiC and Pseudocapacitors
    • 8.19.2.2 Graphene Transistors
    • 8.19.2.3 Graphene THz Device Structures
• 8.20 Fiber Optics
  • 8.20.1 Overview
  • 8.20.2 Materials and Applications in 6G
    • 8.20.2.1 Key Optical Materials
    • 8.20.2.2 6G Fiber-Wireless Architecture
• 8.21 Optical Wireless Communications and Optronic Hardware
  • 8.21.1 Visible Light Communications and LiFi
  • 8.21.2 Free-Space Optics for Backhaul and Non-Terrestrial Links
  • 8.21.3 Optical RIS and Metalenses
  • 8.21.4 Optical Signal Processing and Photonics-Defined Radio
  • 8.21.5 Terahertz Waveguides and Dielectric Cable
• 8.22 Smart EM Devices
  • 8.22.1 Overview
  • 8.22.2 Technical Challenges
  • 8.22.3 Current Status
• 8.23 Photoactive Materials
  • 8.23.1 Overview
  • 8.23.2 Applications in 6G
    • 8.23.2.1 Optically-Controlled RIS
• 8.24 Silicon Carbide
  • 8.24.1 Overview
  • 8.24.2 Applications in 6G
    • 8.24.2.1 GaN-on-SiC Power Amplifiers
    • 8.24.2.2 Thermal Management
    • 8.24.2.3 RF Substrates
• 8.25 Phase-Change Materials
  • 8.25.1 Overview
  • 8.25.2 Applications in 6G
    • 8.25.2.1 Reconfigurable Metamaterials
    • 8.25.2.2 Reconfigurable Antennas
    • 8.25.2.3 RF Switches
      • 8.25.2.3.1 Commercialization Challenges
• 8.26 Vanadium Dioxide
  • 8.26.1 Overview
  • 8.26.2 Applications in 6G
    • 8.26.2.1 Ultrafast RF Switches
    • 8.26.2.2 Thermally-Triggered Devices
    • 8.26.2.3 Tunable Metamaterials
• 8.27 Micro-mechanics, MEMS and Microfluidics
  • 8.27.1 Overview
  • 8.27.2 Applications in 6G
    • 8.27.2.1 MEMS RF Switches
    • 8.27.2.2 MEMS Tunable Capacitors
    • 8.27.2.3 MEMS Phase Shifters
    • 8.27.2.4 Microfluidic Cooling
    • 8.27.2.5 Commercial Status
• 8.28 Solid State Cooling
  • 8.28.1 Overview
  • 8.28.2 Thermoelectric Cooling
  • 8.28.3 Electrocaloric and Magnetocaloric Cooling
  • 8.28.4 Mechanocaloric Cooling: Elastocaloric, Barocaloric and Multicaloric

9 MIMO FOR 6G

• 9.1 MIMO in Wireless Communications
  • 9.1.1 MIMO Evolution Timeline
• 9.2 Challenges with mMIMO
  • 9.2.1 Channel State Information Acquisition
  • 9.2.2 Computational Complexity
  • 9.2.3 Hardware Impairments
  • 9.2.4 Cost and Power Consumption
• 9.3 Distributed MIMO
  • 9.3.1 Architecture
  • 9.3.2 Benefits
  • 9.3.3 Challenges
• 9.4 Cell-free Massive MIMO (Large-Scale Distributed MIMO)
  • 9.4.1 Concept
  • 9.4.2 Network Topology
  • 9.4.3 Performance Benefits
• 9.5 6G Massive MIMO
  • 9.5.1 Frequency-Specific Factors
  • 9.5.2 Processing Architecture
  • 9.5.3 AI/ML Integration
  • 9.5.4 Deployment Strategies
• 9.6 Cell-Free MIMO
  • 9.6.1 Cellular System Limitations
  • 9.6.2 Cell-Free Solutions
  • 9.6.3 Economic Considerations
  • 9.6.4 Interpretation
• 9.7 Benefits and Challenges of Cell-Free MIMO
  • 9.7.1 Benefits
  • 9.7.2 Challenges
• 9.8 Cell-Free Massive MIMO
  • 9.8.1 Overview
  • 9.8.2 Network MIMO (CoMP - Coordinated Multi-Point)
  • 9.8.3 Cell-Free mMIMO Distinctive Features
  • 9.8.4 Transition Strategy
  • 9.8.5 Commercial Readiness
  • 9.8.6 Market Projections

10 ZERO ENERGY DEVICES (ZED) AND BATTERY ELIMINATION

• 10.1 Overview
  • 10.1.1 Critical Success Factors
  • 10.1.2 Market Impact
• 10.2 ZED-Related Technology
  • 10.2.1 Technology Convergence
  • 10.2.2 Drivers for ZED and Battery-Free
    • 10.2.2.1 Operational Impossibility
    • 10.2.2.2 Economic Imperative
    • 10.2.2.3 Environmental Sustainability
    • 10.2.2.4 Reliability and Autonomy
    • 10.2.2.5 Lessons from Deployments
• 10.3 Zero-Energy and Battery-Free 6G
  • 10.3.1 Infrastructure
  • 10.3.2 Client Devices
• 10.4 Electricity consumption of wireless networks
  • 10.4.1 Network Energy Consumption Trends
  • 10.4.2 Energy Harvesting
• 10.5 Technologies
  • 10.5.1 On-Board Harvesting Technologies Compared and Prioritized
  • 10.5.2 6G ZED Design Approaches
  • 10.5.3 Device Architecture
    • 10.5.3.1 System Integration
    • 10.5.3.2 Architecture Variants
  • 10.5.4 Energy Harvesting
    • 10.5.4.1 Power Management Optimization
    • 10.5.4.2 Transducer Efficiency
    • 10.5.4.3 Impedance Matching
  • 10.5.5 Device Battery-Free Storage
    • 10.5.5.1 Supercapacitors
    • 10.5.5.2 Lithium-Ion Capacitors (LIC)
    • 10.5.5.3 Selection Guidelines
    • 10.5.5.4 "Massless Energy" for ZED
      • 10.5.5.4.1 Performance
      • 10.5.5.4.2 6G ZED Applications
      • 10.5.5.4.3 Challenges
      • 10.5.5.4.4 Status
  • 10.5.6 Ambient Backscatter Communications AmBC, Crowd Detectable CD-ZED, SWIPT
    • 10.5.6.1 Performance Characteristics
    • 10.5.6.2 6G Integration
    • 10.5.6.3 Crowd Detectable CD-ZED
    • 10.5.6.4 Simultaneous Wireless Information and Power Transfer (SWIPT)
    • 10.5.6.5 Performance
• 10.6 6G ZED Materials and Technologies
  • 10.6.1 Metamaterials
  • 10.6.2 IRS (Intelligent Reflecting Surfaces)
  • 10.6.3 RIS (Reconfigurable Intelligent Surfaces)
  • 10.6.4 Simultaneous Wireless Information and Power Transfer (SWIPT)
  • 10.6.5 Ambient Backscatter Communications (AmBC)
    • 10.6.5.1 Advanced AmBC Techniques
    • 10.6.5.2 6G Native Integration
  • 10.6.6 Energy Harvesting for 6G
    • 10.6.6.1 Photovoltaics
      • 10.6.6.1.1 Technology Options
      • 10.6.6.1.2 Indoor Optimization
    • 10.6.6.2 Ambient RF
      • 10.6.6.2.1 Power Availability
      • 10.6.6.2.2 Rectifier Technology
      • 10.6.6.2.3 Multi-Band Harvesting
    • 10.6.6.3 Electrodynamic
      • 10.6.6.3.1 Characteristics
      • 10.6.6.3.2 Applications
    • 10.6.6.4 Piezoelectric materials
      • 10.6.6.4.1 Materials
      • 10.6.6.4.2 Harvester Designs
    • 10.6.6.5 Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs)
      • 10.6.6.5.1 Operating Principle
      • 10.6.6.5.2 Performance
      • 10.6.6.5.3 6G Applications
      • 10.6.6.5.4 Challenges
    • 10.6.6.6 Thermoelectric generators (TEGs)
      • 10.6.6.6.1 Performance
      • 10.6.6.6.2 Temperature Sources
      • 10.6.6.6.3 6G ZED Applications
    • 10.6.6.7 Pyroelectric materials
      • 10.6.6.7.1 Mechanism
      • 10.6.6.7.2 Performance
      • 10.6.6.7.3 Applications
      • 10.6.6.7.4 Limitations
    • 10.6.6.8 Thermal Hydrovoltaic
      • 10.6.6.8.1 Mechanisms
      • 10.6.6.8.2 Performance
      • 10.6.6.8.3 Status
    • 10.6.6.9 Biofuel Cells
      • 10.6.6.9.1 Types
      • 10.6.6.9.2 Performance
      • 10.6.6.9.3 Applications
      • 10.6.6.9.4 Challenges
      • 10.6.6.9.5 Status
  • 10.6.7 Ultra-Low-Power Electronics
    • 10.6.7.1 Technologies
    • 10.6.7.2 Future Targets (2030)
    • 10.6.7.3 Design Techniques
    • 10.6.7.4 Supercapacitors
      • 10.6.7.4.1 Advanced Supercapacitor Technologies
    • 10.6.7.5 Hybrid Approaches
      • 10.6.7.5.1 Lithium-Ion Capacitors (LIC)
      • 10.6.7.5.2 Sodium-Ion Batteries
      • 10.6.7.5.3 Lithium Titanate (LTO) Batteries
    • 10.6.7.6 Pseudocapacitors
      • 10.6.7.6.1 Operating Principle
      • 10.6.7.6.2 Performance
      • 10.6.7.6.3 6G ZED Applications
      • 10.6.7.6.4 Status
      • 10.6.7.6.5 Research Directions
• 11.1 Spectrum for 6G
• 11.2 US Federal Spectrum
• 11.3 Regulatory Status (2025)
• 11.4 Standalone vs Non-Standalone Rollout
• 11.5 Open RAN for 6G
  • 11.5.1 Regional Open RAN Positioning
• 11.6 Competition for Spectrum in Europe
  • 11.6.1 Key Challenges
• 11.7 Global 6G Government Initiatives
  • 11.7.1 Program Effectiveness Factors
• 11.8 6G Development Roadmap - South Korea
  • 11.8.1 Technology Focus Areas
  • 11.8.2 South Korea - mmWave Challenges
• 11.9 6G Development Roadmap – Japan
  • 11.9.1 Beyond 5G Program Structure
  • 11.9.2 Deployment Timeline and Market Strategy
• 11.10 Funding Models to Research the Next Mobile Communication Infrastructure
• 11.11 6G Development Roadmap – US

12 COMPANY PROFILES (66 company profiles)

13 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

14 REFERENCES